Biodiversity

 

 Biodiversity signifies a healthy environment and the ability of ecosystems to sustain their life support processes that provide the fundamental basis for human welfare. For example, the rainforest is a type of complex ecosystem – it contains animals and plants that are mutually dependent on one another, but that also ensure the foundations for human life. The vast numbers of trees take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and release oxygen, thereby providing the means for humans to survive. Humans would be unable to live without the healthy operation of this ecosystem.

 

The communities of living creatures have highly complicated functional relations among themselves and with their environments. Through these relations, the important ecological processes such as water circulation, soil formation, and energy flow are generated. These processes supply the support systems necessary for the species’ communities and thus create a critical interdependency. The sustainable development approach that is so often advocated in our society rests upon the preservation of this interdependency.

 

Biodiversity is a crucial environmental issue, because in the last century climate change, pollution, and excessive and unsustainable use of natural resources have damaged biodiversity so severely that the situation is now a threat to human life. The deforestation programmes in the rainforests are reducing the environment’s ability to take in carbon dioxide, and our consumption of fish threatens to wipe out this food source completely.

Useful Websites

http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/research/projects/worldmap/

World Map indicating important areas of biodiversity that need to be preserved

 http://www.defra.gov.uk/wildlife-countryside/biodiversity/

Government action on biodiversity

 http://www.nbn.org.uk/

Latest news on biodiversity and charities involved in the issue

 

Biofuels

 

Biofuels are any kind of fuel made from living organisms, or from the waste the produce, for example:

• wood, wood chippings, straw
• pellets or liquids made from wood
• biogas (methane) made from animals' excrement
• ethanol, diesel, or other liquid fuels made from processing plant material or waste oil

In recent years, biofuels have been more commonly associated with the last category - ethanol and diesel, made from crops including sugarcane, corn and rapeseed. They have been offered as an alternative to coal and other fossil fuels, which the planet is running out of due to excessive human consumption. Furthermore, although burning the fuels releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, growing the plants in the first instance absorbs a comparable amount of the gas, thereby reducing the negative impact upon the environment.

However, some have argued that the increased use of biofuels could damage biodiversity. The major adoption of biofuels will reduce habitat for animals and wild plants still further, and may encourage some countries to pursue deforestation at a faster rate in order to make a profit from selling the biofuels. Moreover, if increased proportions of food crops such as soy and corn are used for fuel, this may push food prices up and have a detrimental effect upon the world's poorer citizens.

Useful Websites

www.biofuel.org.uk

General information on biofuels, the processes by which they are made, and their uses

www.environment.about.com/od/fossilfuels/a/biofuels.htm

The pros and cons of biofuels, and links to other websites

Climate change

 

Climate Change refers to the changes in the world's temperature that have taken place over the last one hundred years. Since 1900 the average temperature on the planet has increased by 0.74 degrees centigrade and sea levels have risen by an average of ten centimetres. Climate change can occur naturally, for example as a result of volcanic eruptions which heat up the planet temporarily, but recent studies conducted on climate change have proven that human beings are primarily responsible for the dramatic rise in temperature that has occurred since the 1970s.

The main human influence on climate change is our emission of greenhouse gases - in particular carbon dioxide. Every time we turn on our car ignition, crank up the heating, or hop aboard a plane for that weekend away, carbon dioxide is pumped into the atmosphere as a result of the energy being created. There are fears that global temperatures could rise by 4 degrees over the next half century.

The results of climate change are potentially devastating - the Maldives are likely to be under water as a result of higher sea levels, as well as parts of the south of England. Temperature rises in parts of Africa could lead to the failure of harvests and widespread poverty. Polar bears may become extinct by 2050 because they will be unable to cross the ice to reach their food. We have already witnessed the devastating consequences of flooding in Bangladesh.

Nevertheless, climate change also offers the world the prime opportunity to reform its energy consuming habits and learn to survive off alternative forms of energy. Scientists are working on new technology all the time that could combat climate change and hopefully prevent the type of temperature rises mentioned above. The government has recently passed a Climate Change Bill which sets out to reduce national emissions by 26% by 2020. We as individuals can also play a role, by taking steps to reduce the amount of energy we use in our everyday lives - simply by lowering our heating or using a bicycle instead of taking the car, we can help to reduce emissions.

Useful Websites

www.defra.gov.uk/environment/climatechange/uk/legislation

This government department website offers information and details on the UK government's Climate Change Bill

www.bbc.co.uk/climate

Watch the progress of climate change as it happens

www.direct.gov.uk/en/environmentandgreenerliving/thewiderenvironment/climatechange/index.htm

Find out how you can make a difference

Conservation

 

In an environmental context, conservation usually refers to the protection, preservation, management, or restoration of wildlife and of natural resources such as water, forests and soil. It can also refer to the conservation of energy in an effort to reduce wastage. Conservation issues are becoming increasingly urgent in a world that is rapidly running out of resources; human activity and exploitation of natural habitats have upset the balance of ecosystems and have created a severe shortage of resources that both humans and other living organisms need to survive

Types of conservation include:

• Water conservation - we are currently using more water than the natural world is able to replace, and this is reducing the number of fresh water habitats for local wildlife. It also increases the risk of drought and water shortages for humans. Measures that can be taken to mitigate this effect include the implementation of low-flush toilets and low-flush shower heads, and limiting the use of sprinklers and hosepipes.
• Energy conservation - the amount of energy that humans use, predominantly those living in the developed and developing world, is having a severe impact upon our environment. (See climate change). Energy conservation is concerned with the efficient use of energy by companies, governments and individuals: for example, the government looks to make all new homes energy efficient by installing insulation, double-glazed windows and cavity walls. This means that home-owners will not have to keep their heating on full power all year round, thereby significantly reducing annual energy consumption.
• Habitat conservation - this is a land management practice that seeks to protect, conserve and restore habitat areas for wild plants and animals, and prevent their extinction, reduction, or fragmentation. Many wildlife charities such as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) are charities that operate with this goal in mind - the philosophy of habitat conservation has become a distinct ideology in which many people have engaged out of concern for the animals of this world.

Useful Websites

www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/conservation

Up to date information on the progress achieved and the difficulties facing animal conservation

www.unep-wcmc.org

Acaiberry is the United Nations Environment Program's efforts to monitor conservation, with detailed policy reports and current conservation projects

www.conservationfoundation.co.uk Information on conservation and how individuals can get involved

GM Crops

 

Genetically Modified Organisims - otherwise known as GM crops - have aroused a significant amount of debate in recent years. They can be defined as organisms in which the 'genetic material has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination' (according to UK government legislation). Basically they have been artificially engineered in order to suit man's agricultural needs.

There are advantages to this process of intervening in nature's development:
 

• Farmers can grow a larger crop because it is easier to fight pests
• Farmers can protect the environment by using less crop spray - genetically modified plants can be engineered to defend themselves against common diseases and pests
• The 'technology' could help farmers produce more food with fewer resources. This is important in a world of massive population growth and excessive consumption of natural resources.
• GM crops can be artificially enriched with molecules such as beta-carotene, which have major health benefits for humans
• The proteins that cause allergies can be modified or eliminated
• There are hopes that GM crops could be the answer to global food crises, particular in the third world, because the risk of harvest failures will be substantially reduced

However, serious concerns have been raised by many pro-environment groups, such as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth. They have outlined numerous problems with GM crops, both for humans and for the natural environment:
 

• GM crops can contaminate other crops when pollen is blown by the wind from one field to another
• Pests may develop resistance to GM crops and this can lead to the destruction of an entire year's harvest
• Often, more chemicals are used on some GM field which may have a negative impact on the environment
• There are still fears that GM crops could be harmful to human health; there is no substantial evidence that assures of either their benefits or their dangers. New proteins have been introduced into the human and animal food chain that could cause allergies or unpredictable effects
• GM crops present a threat to wildlife, because of the wider use of weedkills to remove other unwanted plants in the field. There is a fear that species of bird such as the skylark will be wiped out, because they will have no insects to feed upon.

These lists are not extensive, but they provide an insight into some of the debates and controversies surrounding the use of GM crops. The government's current policy is:

'There is no scientific case for a blanket ban on the cultivation of GM crops in the UK, but that proposed uses need to be assessed for safety on a case-by-case basis. The Government will continue to take a precautionary approach and only agree to the commercial release of a GM crop if the evidence shows that it does not pose an unacceptable risk to human health and the environment.'

Useful Websites

www.defra.gov.uk/environment/gm/index.htm
Outlines the latest government policy and provides basic information on GM crops and their uses

www.foe.co.uk/resource/briefings/gm_crops_food.pdf
Friends of the Earth offers a comprehensive guide to GM crops from the 'anti' camp, and answers many key questions

www.guardian.co.uk/environment/gm
The Guardian presents articles, opinions and blogs on the issue of GM crops

Organic

 

Organic farming has become one of the most popular phases in consumerism to hit the world this century. In 2006, organic food and drink sales nudged the £2 billion mark for the first time, and showed a 22 per cent growth overall. It has been co-opted by most major supermarkets who recognise its potential power to attract consumers by assuring the concern of companies for the environment. In the eyes of the media, to have organic products on your shelf is to command respect, demonstrating an awareness of green issues and the importance of the environment.

So what exactly does 'organic' mean? Organic farming is a method of growing food using processes that are friendlier to the environment. Farmers radically reduce the number of chemicals they use, instead growing clover and adding manure to the land to make the soil more fertile. Weeds, pests and diseases are controlled by changing the type of crops grown in a field each year (a programme known as crop rotation.) Organic farming does not only concern food 'crops', but has an important role to play in assuring conditions for animals. It ensures that chickens, cows, pigs and other animals that are bred for food have a good quality of life and the best living conditions that can be provided. For example, an organic chicken will be allowed to roam free, will be fed with high-quality food and will not suffer the damaging effects of intensive rearing. There are several aims of organic farming, a few of which are outlined here:
 

• To interact in a constructive and life-enhancing way with natural systems and cycles
• To help in the conservation of soil and water
• To use, as far as possible, renewable resources in locally organised agricultural systems
• To give all livestock conditions of life which allow them to live and perform as naturally as possible in their environments
• To ensure food of high nutritional quality in sufficient quantity

Organic produce, indicated by the Soil Association Badge, is often preferred by consumers because of the guarantees it carries - it promises a product comparatively free from chemicals, from an environment that is sustainable and that enhances biodiversity, and produced in conditions that are to the benefit of both animals and plants. Some critics have tried to play down the advantages of organic products, but thus far their claims have lacked any substantial evidence.

Common organic products include:
 

• Most fruit and veg - apples, carrots, pears, lettuce, tomatoes etc
• Cereal based products - granola, muesli, cereal bars, wheat and oat cereals
• Common carbohydrates - bread, pasta, rice, grains
• Snack products - jams, peanut butter, biscuits, cakes, sugar
• Dairy products - milk, yoghurts, cheese, desserts
• Drinks - tea, coffee, juices/smoothies, fizzy drinks.....in fact, almost every product in the supermarket offers an organic alternative!

Useful websites

www.soilassociation.org
This institution is responsible for endorsing products that pass the 'organic' test; their website has detailed information on organic farming, its benefits, where to buy organic produce, and also an educational section

www.pornotesten.com
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www.aboutorganics.co.uk
Information on different ways to go organic and the aspects of life that can be made 'organic', as well as details of upcoming organic events

www.organicgarden.org.uk
How to grow your own organic food, with useful tips and advice

Recycling

 

Did you know that in one hour we produce enough waste in the UK to fill the Albert Hall??

Recycling has become an accepted part of daily life in many regions of the UK: each household has bins on its doorstep for recycling plastic, glass, paper and metals so that all we need to do is separate our rubbish before throwing it away. We are also encouraged to recycle our clothes by giving them to charity shops, and recycle printer cartridges, batteries and mobile phones in electrical stores. But why is all this so important?

Firstly, UK landfill sites are filling up at an alarming rate and we are simply running out of space for dumping our rubbish. According to one estimate, if everyone in the world created as much waste as the average person in the UK, we would need eight worlds to support us. These landfill sites are not only overloaded, but they can also be very polluting - methane, produced from rotting waste, is about twenty-four times more powerful than CO2.  

Secondly, the world is rapidly running out of resources as a result of excessive consumption by developed and developing countries. We need to recycle our waste in order to make the most out of our resources.

Thirdly, producing goods from recycled materials drastically reduces the energy used in the manufacturing process - this is fantastic news when it comes to cutting our carbon emissions

Some recycling facts:

Glass

• There's no liimt to the number of times that glass can be recycled, and recycling just one glass bottle will save enough energy to power ten energy-efficient light bulbs for nearly an hour.
• Well over one-third of all glass bottles are recycled in the UK, but shockingly the recycling rate is no higher for pubs, clubs and restaurants, where they are thrown away en masse

Metals

• In the late 1980s we recycled only 2 per cent of cans; now it's nearer 50 per cent. However, this still means 50 per cent that is wasted unnecessarily
• A new aluminium can takes twenty times more energy to make than a recycled one
• On average, each home gets through 600 food and drinks cans every year; recycling them saves 75 oer cent of the energy used to make new ones

Paper and Cardboard

• Every tonne of paper and cardboard that is recycled saves 30,000 litres of water and produces only 5 per cent of the air pollution compared to making it from scratch
• Many items such as toilet roll, notebooks, and office paper are now made from recycled paper and are available for competitive pricecs in most chain stores

Plastics

• Recycling plastics reduces energy consumption by two-thirds, water use by 90 per cent, and CO2 generation by two and a half times.
• Some supermarkets now charge for plastic bags in an effort to discourage needless wastage of plastic; why not use a bag-for-life instead?

Of course, it is important to remember that recycling is only one part of the effort to save our planet - while it is a worthwhile endeavour, it is essential that we cut down the resources we are using in the first place. We can congratulate ourselves for re-using our plastic bag, but it would be have been better to use our handbag or a bag-for-life in the first place. As consumers, the power lies in our hands - manufacturers will always meet demand, so the demand needs to be eliminated. The use of plastic bags and other wasteful products should be reduced in the first instance, and recycling can then contribute to the process of conservation and the efficient use of resources.

Useful Websites

www.wasteonline.org.uk
Provides information on waste and recycling

www.reuze.co.uk
Excellent information source on waste recycling, including links to your local council recycling initiatives

www.worktwice.co.uk
Arranges collection and recycling of waste electronics, paper and plastic for businesses

www.oxford.gov.uk/environment/index.cfm
Offers information on where to recycle in Oxford, local recycling initiatives and collection points in the city

 

Unsustainable Fish

 

Unsustainable fishing is used to describe the way in which humans are exploiting the world's fish population to the extent that stocks are depleting without sign of recovery. The oceans, seas and coasts are under severe strain; some 250 million people earn their living from fishing, up to 70% of humans rely on fish as their primary source of protein, and more than 90% of our trade is carried by shipping - and yet, less than 1% of the world's seas are protected.

In 1950 18 million tonnes of fish were hauled out of the sea - today it's more like 100 million tonnes. Not only that, but the fish we catch are smaller than they were fifty years ago, which means that fewer of them are able to reach breeding age and so numbers are further depleted.

A Case study:
After years of over-fishing and ignoring warning signs, the world's richest cod fishery in Newfoundland collapsed in 1992. Between 30,000 and 40,000 people lost their jobs overnight and cod populations have still not recovered over a decade later. North Sea stocks are similarly threatened: WWF estimates that the total volume of cod remaining there would fit into a single North Sea car ferry.

The WWF has provided some other statistics:
 

• Three-quarters of fish stocks are fished at, or beyond, sustainable limits
• Every year, millions of tonnes of 'bycatch' (unwanted fish trapped in the nets of the 'target' fish such as cod), including 300,000 mammels (dolphins, wales) are caught accidentally
• Some 10% of coral reefs may now be damaged beyond recovery
• In England and Wales, some 75% of our salt marshes - an important home for wildlife, and a useful barrier against severe weather - have bee lost.

So what can we do?
 

• Marine reserves: these are intended to designate large sea areas where marine life is protected. Approaches to this vary from merely banning commercial fishing or mining, to denying access even to tourists. These zones have often given fish stocks vital breathing space and enabled them to recover to previous levels
• If you're buying fish in supermarkets, look our for a Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) label. The MSC has developed standards for sustainable well-managed fisheries, so consumers can support good practices
• Be aware about the fish you buy: fish caught locally, from day boats, will generally have bee caught with more sustainable fishing methods and won't have clocked up on transportation miles. Shellfish such as cockles, mussels, whelks, crabs, lobsters and cold-water prawns are all ok to eat, as is mackerel, line-caught sea bass and flounder. If you still crave traditional fish and chips, try going for alternatives to cod and haddock, such as pollack and whiting.
• Fish to avoid: all bigeye and bluefin tuna, most albacore and some yellowfin. Slow-breeding fish like the orange roughy, monkfish, skate and most rays are obviously out because of the time they take to replenish their numbers, along with shark, marlin and swordfish (a popular, but unenvironmentally friendly, holiday choice). Other fish to avoid are cod, haddock, some plaice, tropical prawns, Atlantic salmon, Atlantic halibut, European hake and blue ling.
• Supermarkets: both M&S and Waitrose set high standards for fish farming, pushing industry towards innovative and continuing improvements, but Asda, Sainsbury's and Tesco have also developed sustainability standards; just be prepared to check the labels!

This sounds like a lot to take in, but simply to be aware of the issue and perhaps think about reducing the amount of fish you consume in a week is a step in a positive direction. To find out more, the websites listed below have really useful and accessible information.

Useful websites

www.fishonline.org
Run by the Marine Conservation Society, this site gives information on which fish to avoid and which to eat based on the sustainability of stocks

www.msc.org
Encourages sustainable fishing practices through accreditation and labelling of fish

www.soilassociation.org
Organic standards body that has developed criteria for organic farmed fish


 

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